The alphabet is a system and series of symbols representing, collectively, the elements of written language that should be studied not only to gain the thoughts it reveals, but also to know it for itself alone as a sublime achievement of the human mind, and to savour the peculiar pleasure that is to be had from appreciating its beauty as a vehicle of thought.

Frederic Goudy (1963) The Alphabet and Elements of Lettering

Abstract:

The western alphabet and its component letters are, like our culture, continuously developing. The influences of alphabet are deeply imbedded in our society making it necessary to study our own culture to understand cultures of the past. The key to understanding the development and social impact of the western alphabet requires a contextual framework in which early letter symbols, the scribes that formed them and the cultural influences on the scribe can be studied jointly. The limitations of assessing past cultures are shown using examples set in modern day English.

Introduction:

When studying the letters and alphabets of ancient cultures Ethnographers must interpret the cultural ideas and/or cultural news presented within the symbology and within a societal context. To create a societal context for a given point in time we must get a sense of where that society came from and where it was going. Studying letterforms we must study the impact of letterforms on the society and the impact of society on letterforms.

Using the development of the western phonetic alphabet, and its constituent letterforms, we can determine what to keep in mind when interpreting cultural symbology and constructing a societal context.

To understand the development of the western phonetic alphabet and the ancient cultures, in which it was born, we must understand, as Logan says,

' that a medium of communication is not merely a passive conduit for the transmission of information but rather an active force in creating new social patterns and new perceptual realities.' (1986, p.24)

Symbology:

Symbology, as a medium of communication, helps create and enforce the ideals of a society. Letters and alphabets are one example of such symbology.

In studying the symbols of other cultures we cannot read into the interpretation the agreed upon meanings of our culture. As Forge insists 'between cultures there is no necessary connection between motif and interpretation.' (1973, p.169) Forge studied primitive art and found similarities between motifs in artwork but discovered that the motifs had different meanings for different cultures.

Cultures and their symbols can only be understood in context when Ethnographers meet the challenge of studying the development of a culture and its symbols and then by extrapolating meanings for various points in time.

The following examples illustrate the care that must be taken when deciphering cultural symbols.

Example 1: Contextual differences within the English language

Not all terms are equivalent or desirable to use throughout the English speaking world. In Britain one may say 'knocked up' when referring to calling on friends, in Canada 'knocked up' refers to pregnancy.

Example 2: Contextual differences within Western letters

English may be translated into other languages that use the same letters. Sometimes the literal translation uses the same letters and means the same thing. For example, excellence in French or English. However, there are some notorious examples where English words translate letter for letter into a word of another language but takes on an entirely inappropriate meaning. The manufacturers of the Nova (car) found their advertising campaign could not be brought into Central America because no va means "it doesn't work" in Spanish.

To determine a societal context for letters, and a meaning at any point in time for those letters, we must determine how writing was used and to what point it had evolved. Writing, at various times in history, has been reserved strictly for priests and at other times, widely used by common people and especially merchants. Letterforms are always changing, no matter who is using them and no matter at what point in history. For instance, in the 2^nd to 5^th Centuries AD, a time when writing was freely used by all people, the use of formal square capitals gave way to simpler free flowing writing forms that did not require as many 'lifts' of the pen. Oppositely, with the decline of the Roman Empire up to the time of Charlemagne, European countries developed their own rigid national hands in cloistered societies. (Hutchinson, 1983)

History

A short history of the western phonetic alphabet, highlighting important points in time, helps clarify stages in letter development and the contextual effect of societies.

The symbols we use today as letters have a rich and long history. From cave paintings to computer typography, the history of symbols spans the lifetime of human development. Prehistoric paintings, requiring a brush, have been dated c12,000 BC (Hutchinson, 1983). Alphabetic use of symbols is generally recognised to have begun in the Near East between 3,500 and 3,000 BC. (Logan, 1986).

Around 1,700 BC the Serites adopted Egyptian symbols and syntax to use with their own language. The Egyptians were using as many as 3,000 hieroglyphic signs, 300 to 400 hundred in regular use, of which the Serites adapted only 22 to represent their consonants. The Phoenicians simplified the symbols by 1,300 BC, making them easier to write and between 1,100 and 800 BC the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script and added vowels. The phonetic alphabet was born. Lastly, the Romans adopted many of the Greek letters and developed the letterforms we are still using today, over 2000 years later. (Logan, 1986)

Alphabetic use of symbols differs from cultural uses in that the symbols represent an agreed upon sound and not (always) an idea. The transition from symbols as ideas to symbols as sounds was gradual and unsystematic. Figure1 illustrates this point with a rebus for the word 'belief.'

In is important to note that this rebus represents the co-joining of two syllables and is only valid in English. (Jensen, 1969) Imagine the task presented to researchers trying to decipher proto-alphabetic blocks of symbols. They must determine if they are dealing with a symbol, sound or syllable. If a literal translation is secured in some manner then an interpretation and cultural significance is sought. Again it is helpful to consider some symbols of our culture and how easily they can be explained. Could a spray painted gang 'tag' of graffiti be easily explained without the cultural significance?

Phonetic writing developed when vowels were added to the alphabet. The first alphabets were composed of consonants with the vowels implied. Note the vowel difference in the words sang, sing, song and sung. Our vowel inclusive alphabet makes it clear what action has taken place. In consonant alphabetic scripts, the clues for interpreting the meaning of the words were in the context of the writing. (Logan, 1986)

The use of the phonetic alphabet is thought to have allowed the conditions for the development of codified laws (the Ten Commandments), monotheism (one true God), abstract science and deductive logic (empirical thought) leading to the printing press and industrial revolution. In the first 500 years after the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet (c.1100 BC) came abstract science, formal logic, axiomatic geometry, rational philosophy and representational art. With vowels, words became easier and faster to read. The letters became transparent to the meaning of the words. (Logan, 1986)

Logan is saying that western thought and culture blossomed because it had an environment in which to flourish. One component of that environment was letters and another was the phonetic alphabet.

"Writing promotes a relationship among standardisation, abstraction and symbolism - one of the fundamental characteristics of civilised culture." (Logan, 1986, p.61)

Western letters have thrice, since their initial adoption by the Romans, undergone redevelopment. The Carlovingian Period, the Italian Renaissance and in the early 1900's with the advent of Commercial Art. It is interesting to note that for thousands of year's letter form designs were tied to architectural themes.

In Figure 2 we note the commonality between the major letter design and the major architectural design of that time.

In the case of the Pyramid, there is no similarity. For over two thousand years letter design can be linked to architecture, as indicated by the Roman and Gothic styles. In the 20^th Century, the relationship between letters and architecture ends. (Nesbitt, 1950) No examples of major letterforms correlating to recent major architectural designs are available. Perhaps it is too soon to tell.

Carlovingian Renaissance in the 8^th Century

Between 500 and 800 writing was not wide spread. This period known as the Dark Ages was due to the collapse of the Roman Empire. Scholars gathered in cloistered societies where they kept and developed letterforms. Though these sanctuaries were geographically distant, scholars still communicated because they shared Latin as a common language. Nationalism, as we know it today, did not exist. (Nesbitt, 1950)

Under the influence of Alcuin of York and the leadership of Charlemagne (Carl the Great) The General Admonition of 789 stated in part, " If a Gospel book Psalter or missal has to be copied, let men of mature age do so with every care." The reins on creative lettering were being pulled in. The Carlovingian minuscule was developed to become the standard letterform by the late 700's. Together with the Roman capitals of centuries before, these two letter types formed the pattern for the next revival of letters in the 1400's during the Renaissance in Italy. (Nesbitt, 1950)

Italian Renaissance in the 15^th Century Italy

In the 1400's there was no national state, as we know it today. Artists gathered in Italy from all over Europe and were paid by wealthy patrons. The Gothic design spirit failed to impress Italians who were taking great interest in the Roman Empire relics, both architecture and manuscripts, that were now a 1,000 years old. It was also a time of Chivalry, the birth of many political institutions and the reign of a powerful religion and church. It was a time of merchant wealth and luxury. A time of excess which allowed scholars to return to, and value, older letter forms before the indelible stamp of the printing press led to another decline in hand written forms of letters. (Nesbitt, 1950)

The most recent hand written letter revival took place in Britain in the early 1900's before W.W.I. The British Empire was still strong and, like Italy during the Renaissance, it was a time of wealth. Nationalism had grown, Chivalry was replaced with Victorian mores and the church was fractured. The printing press, and the many letter designs struck for that device, along with narrow steel tip pens, had led to the use of letter forms that were, to some British scholars, ugly and illegible. The development of Commercial Art led to the revival of letterforms. Suddenly scholars were needed to show artists how to letter. A distinction was made between Calligraphy and Penmanship. Calligraphy being those forms of letters created by broad tip pens and Penmanship representing 'narrow pen acrobatics.' (Nesbitt, 1950)

Letters have been called upon to express cultural ideas as well as communicate cultural news. Sometimes it is impossible to clearly separate the ideas from the news. (Nesbitt, 1950) In the case of ancient scripts where vowels were implied, so too began the tradition of incorporating the reason for the document in the form of the document. Today, as examples of form indicating content, we have diplomas, graffiti and press releases.

We still use letters by themselves, to convey contextual messages. An 'A' is a desirable grade in school, second to that is a 'B'. Alphabetically inconsistent with letter grade, 'F' comes before 'I' or 'P'.

On a sign at the side of a highway an 'A' means artisan ahead. Berth A, Gate A and Room A are all the first of those facilities in any given place. H is for hospital and M is for museum.

Figure 3

In a 1,000 years, what will Anthropologists make of the icons in Figure 3? Will they use the symbols to create a story? Will they give each symbol a phonetic value? Are the icons related in rows or columns? What context will Anthropologists create to interpret all the signs they find beside highways?

Conclusion:

The examples show, within the use and development of the western alphabet, the meaning of words cannot be ascertained without a social context. By extension, the letterforms of other societies must also be viewed in context. Crapo summarises these thoughts with two suggestions regarding the interpreting of cultural symbols:

• that 'an object or event represents another object or event only because of the agreement among people that it will' (1996, p.39) and

• that 'a cultures symbolic system of communication, customs and habits are unique and can best be understood by the other in relationship to the situation in which they occur.' (1996, p.53)

To which Logan adds, 'It is only by studying both the medium as a 'message' and the messages that the medium transmits that a full appreciation of cultural and historical processes can emerge.' (1986, p.25)

Book

• Hutchinson, J. (1983). Letters. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
• Jensen, H. (1969). Sign, symbol and script. New York: G.P.Putman's Sons.
• Logan, R.K. (1986). The alphabet effect. New York: St.Martin's.
• Nesbitt, A. (1950). The history and technique of lettering. New York: Dover.

Chapter in Book

• Crapo, R.H. (1996). Culture. In Cultural anthropology (pp.37-60). Utah: McGraw-Hill.
• Forge, A. (1973). Style and meaning in Sepik art. In A. Forge (Ed.). Primitive art and society (pp.169-192). New York: Oxford University Press.