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CHARACTER EDUCATION and TODAY'S SCHOOLS

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

Why Character Education - Bullying

Bullying is a serious problem in many schools. Students feel unsafe in their school and when this occurs learning is reduced and stress increases (Learning First Alliance, 2001). It goes further than learning, however, as teachers are forced to spend time solving these issues and dealing with their repercussions. As noted in the "Every Child Learning: Safe and Supportive Schools" article by the Learning First Alliance this was quoted:


"This type [bullying] of misbehavior, vastly more common than any other, ruins the school day for many students. Being threatened, teased, or jostled in the hall inevitably causes students to feel anger, fear, frustration, and alienation. These feelings can erupt or simmer below the surface, but either way they distract students from learning and teachers from teaching. Nationwide [USA], 27 percent of teachers say that student misbehaviour keeps them from teaching, a fair amount to a great deal of the time" (Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Czeh, E. R., Cantor, D., Crosse, S. B., & Hantman, I., 2000).

 

Bullying is a problem for multiple reasons as Garrity, Jens, Porter, Sager, and Short-Camilli state (1998). Victims of bullying experience both psychological problems and physical symptoms as a result of bullying. Emotionally the children have a decreased self-esteem, are typically scared to go to school, have a lack of interest in school and may suffer academically (Garrity, C. Jens, K. Porter, W. Sager, N. Short-Camilli, C., 1998). Physically the children may experience headaches, stomach-aches and irrational behaviour (Garrity, C., et al., 1998). Bullies are almost complete opposites of their victims with high self-esteems and feel little or no compassion for their victims with a need to dominate and they often feel justified in their actions (Garrity, C. et al.1998). Methods of bullying vary, even between the sexes with girl bullies using less physical violence and more manipulative methods, such as slander and harassment (Olweus, 1993). Today however more girls are exhibiting more violent behaviour as evidenced by the violent bullying episode in Vancouver that involved both girls and boys that resulted in the death of the victim (Jiwani, 1997).


Methods to deal with bullies are varied, but Bowman feels that educators and society in general are focussing more energy on security issues against bullies instead of assisting people to change their attitudes towards others while developing a caring class, school and community (2001a). Bowman further cites, Nancy Guerra who emphasized that students exhibit more callousness towards one another and it is becoming widely accepted behaviour (2001a). In Bowman's article "At School, a cruel culture," Russell J. Quaglia, the director of the National Center for Student Aspirations indicated that racial issues do not seem as offensive now as the way people are treating one another (2001a). Students lack empathy for others and do not feel accountable for their actions (Bowman, 2001a). Sherman claims that teachers and parents can help a child who becomes upset and angry with his peers and the way they relate to him, by asking him/her to become:

 

"Self-observant and critical of his [her] own contributions in tackling what is morally salient. He or she helps the child by shifting the gestalt, by recomposing the scene in a way that is more accurate, This is not simply a lesson in psychology, but a lesson in morality, to the extent that a chronically bullying and angry attitude stands in the way of morally finer ways of interacting" (1999, p.46).

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Bowman (2001b) cites Dr. Spivak, a professor of pediatrics and community health, who suggests that for a better understanding of the bullying issues and its long-term affect on students we need to appreciate there are new ways of dealing with bullying. Disciplinary actions have been the norm in dealing with bullies but it is critical that new approaches to the problem take into consideration child development and remedial solutions (Bowman, 2001b).

As the consequences of bullying can be long-term, not only for the victims but for the bullies as well (Boatwright et al., 1998) it is critical that a proactive approach be taken. In-class programs may address the bullying problem by giving students tools to use when they are bullied, so that students feel safe in school.


When students are taught how to deal with bullying situations, they have the skills and tools to help both themselves and others to create a safe school environment (Banks, 1997). Successful programs involve teachers, students and parents working together to instill, within all stakeholders, the value of treating each other with respect, kindness, integrity and caring (Battistich, 2001; Battistich, V., Watson, M., Solomon, D., Schaps, E., & Solomon, J., 1991; Lickona, 1997; Noddings, 1997; Schaps, E., Battistich, V., Solomon, D., 1998). Once students realize parents, teachers and community members are involved and willing to listen and help them in a bullying situation, then they are not afraid to ask for help. Students also expect to receive help and have the bully dealt with in an appropriate matter. Additionally, the bully realizes that parents, teachers and community members are now listening to the victim and that the bully's version will not be believed, as it once was.
Schwartz indicated in her article, that students increase their prosocial skills when an all-inclusive approach to fostering children's positive behaviour is taken by all facets of society (1999). It is important that students identify and discover how to cope with unpleasant situations so they can learn from the experience and change their behaviour (Quong, & Walker, 2000).


One such program is the "Dare to Care" program (Calgary Family Services, 2002). Garrity, Jens, Porter, Sager, and Short-Camilli, the authors of "Bully-Proofing Your School" state, "The program provides a 'blueprint' for an elementary school to easily implement a bully-proofing program designed to meet one criterion: to make the school environment safe for children both physically and psychologically" (1998, p.2).

Bowman (2001a) reported that Jean A. Baker, the director of the school psychology program at Michigan State University in East Lansing believes that, having teachers be role models for the children is a positive step toward developing a culture that is caring and empathetic. By creating an environment that enriches the social fabric of the school and community and by developing a positive climate in the school, through the reduction of bullying and building a safe and caring school, many of the prosocial behaviours will be enhanced. In addressing these concerns, many schools are turning to character education.

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Definitions of Character Development

    1. Many school districts, character education writers, and schools have produced definitions of character education. Four examples of Character Education definitions are:Character education is learning about character traits and how they are linked to good behaviour. It is learning how to make good decisions. It is learning that an individual can be in control of choices concerning his/her own behaviour, and that such control is worthy of praise and respect (Wake County 2002).
    2. Character education involves instilling through instruction and example desirable mental and ethical traits, which constitute good citizenship. For our purposes, we can further define it as a planned, comprehensive, and systematic approach for teaching and integrating core ethical values across the curriculum, and into the life of the school (Chicago Public School System, 2002).
    3. Character Education is the intentional, proactive effort to develop good character. Qualities of good character are called virtues. Virtues such as the cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude advanced by the ancient Greeks are objectively good human qualities. They are good for the individual - they help the person lead a fulfilling life - and they are good for the whole human community. Virtues provide the moral content that defines good character (Lickona, 1991, p.46).
    4. Character education is the development of a language with a student that instills in them universal values that are worldwide (Rusnak, 2001).

These definitions are four ways of trying to understand and explain succinctly what character education is. As character education is so convoluted and all encompassing it is quite difficult to include all aspects of character education and so the definitions are limited in what a school or district will try to accomplish. These modern definitions refer to ethical traits, core values, virtues or character traits.

 

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Thoughts on Justice and Moral Development

Character education has been debated and discussed for years, in fact, at least since the time of Socrates. Today, educators list some of the virtues and values, which become part of character education as honesty, empathy, respect, and responsibility, but both Plato and Socrates maintained that justice was the only virtue and everything else fell under this. (Kohlberg, 1981) For Plato justice was 'knowing the good' (Kohlberg, 1981 p. 40).

Hartshorne and May


In the early twentieth century, Hartshorne and May found when students were given situations dealing with lying, stealing and cheating, the students actual knowledge of the values and morals did not coincide with their actions (Forsythe, 1977; Kohlberg, 1981). Although student's 'knew the good' they did not act in accordance with it. This dichotomy of "moral thought to moral action" has been found by several researchers; they have found that there is little correlation between what a person knows as good and their actions (Forsythe, 1977; Kohlberg, 1981). Does this mean that we should not help and challenge students in their moral development through Character Education? And, if teaching morals does not increase moral behaviour what is to be done?

Plato


Most character education researchers agree that despite the dichotomy students should be taught about morality, but there remains a debate on the concepts that should be used (Battistich et al., 1991, Schaps, 1998; Lickona, 1991). One argument is that justice should be taught in schools as it is very extensive and covers all other concepts under its umbrella (Kohlberg, 1981). According to Kohlberg who paraphrased Plato, "what makes a virtuous action virtuous is that it is guided by knowledge of the good" (1981, p.40). He further stated that, "If virtuous action is action based on knowledge of the good, then virtue is one, because knowledge of the good is one" (1981, p.40).


Justice


Justice is a very large concept for students to grasp and is therefore difficult for teachers to teach or discuss in the classroom. It would need to be broken down into smaller components but then the idea of justice being the sole virtue may be lost. It is for that reason I believe that new ways of approaching moral education or character education are being discussed so widely today. There have been comprehensive studies done on moral reasoning but few studies have been carried out on the manner in which character education has been taught and the success character education has had (Battistich, 1999). Possibly by using these newer methods the parts of justice can be disentangled, as will be seen further in this paper.


Aristotle


Aristotle felt that there were two parts to virtue - the moral component in which we learn by doing and being involved; and the intellectual component in which we learn from being taught (Aristotle). "Anything that we have to learn to do we learn by the actual doing of it" (Aristotle, Niconachean Ethics, Book II, p.91 in Smith) It would be good to have any in-school program include both activities and discussions to help ensure that morality is understood by children. "We become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate ones, brave by doing brave ones" (Aristotle, Niconachean Ethics, Book II, p.91 in Smith). Dewey (2002) also felt that learning-by-doing rather than rote learning was important and that education is a process of living and not a preparation for future living. So, what children do in school is not practicing for life but is life and they need to learn the good if there is to be moral society and school.


Piaget


Piaget's stages of cognitive development are important to consider when teaching children about morality. Children move through four stages of cognitive development.

    1. Sensorimotor experience (birth to two years of age) when children experience the world through their senses and motor abilities.
    2. Preoperational (age two to seven) when children begin to think but most are very egocentric (the world revolves around them).
    3. Concrete operations (seven to eleven) when children think processes through but in a concrete way where for example things should be equal.
    4. Formal operations (age eleven and older) when children are able to reason in terms of abstractions (Reimer et al., 1983).

 

Although the above lists Piaget's stages of cognitive development he felt the affective domain was important and that the two are intertwined. Piaget felt that "affect motivates the operations of cognition and cognition structures the operations of affect" (1983). It is in this respect that Piaget's and Kohlberg's work is important for the development of moral judgment.


Kohlberg


Kohlberg stages of moral development are important as they build a conceptual framework to understand the progress of moral development in people. Listed below are the six stages of moral development that Kohlberg studied.

    1. Stage One: literal obedience to rules.
    2. Stage Two: right becomes serving one's own needs or other's needs or what is fair
    3. Stage Three: following the 'golden rule' - do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
    4. Stage Four: people's actions are for the good of society.
    5. Stage Five: doing the greatest good for the greatest number.
    6. Stage Six: following a moral principle for the good of mankind (Kohlberg, 1981).


Children are not able to grasp the abstract until they are around eleven or twelve years of age (PBS, 2002) and as such would likely be found in stage 2 as stage 3 involves abstract concepts of reasoning. As children mature they move through Kohlberg's 'Six Stages of Moral Judgment'.

 

Teacher Responsibility


It is teachers who can help them progress from stage to stage by means of questions and scenarios they present to the students (Kohlberg, 1981). However teachers need to remember Piaget's stages of cognitive and affective development as they present value-laden (moral) scenarios because at certain stages of cognitive development, children are egocentric and cannot see or understand another person's point of view (Reimer, 1983).


In dealing with moral decisions, Aristotle used the phrase "relative to us" (Sherman, 1999, p. 38) which means that when a person makes an appropriate moral choice it is dependent on the situation that he or she is involved in (Sherman, 1999). Aristotle used the phrase 'for the most part' make (Sherman, 1999, p.39) in reference to dealing with a choice that someone may make. Accordingly, this phrase implies that a person making a moral choice in one circumstance may not necessarily make the same choice in a similar circumstance, but that it would generally be held that the decision would be the same but not necessarily so (Sherman, 1999). The significance for educators is that through their teaching they can present a variety of scenarios to students, but in class a student may make one choice but in a real situation, because conditions may differ slightly, the student may make another choice. However, children do learn by doing and so 'for the most part' they will make the right decision (Dewey, 2002; Hendrikson, 1984; Bonwell & Eison, 1991). For example, in a physical education class students are taught how to do a lay-up, and even though they practice, when the time comes to do a lay-up in a game, they may not do it correctly. The same thing may happen in making moral decisions. If we remember Hartshorne and May's research that even though children are presented with and practice many scenarios they may not make a morally right choice in real life situations, but it behooves teachers to keep trying to instill positive moral attitudes and behaviours (knowing the good) in students. The critical factor is that students have practiced and thought through different consequences and results and therefore they have the ability to call upon these scenarios when up against tough decisions in their life and need not walk into them blindly. Dewey's thoughts on this matter are as follows.


The school should rather be viewed as an extension of civil society and continuous with it, and the student encouraged to operate as a member of a community, actively pursuing interests in cooperation with others. It is by a process of self-directed learning, guided by the cultural resources provided by teachers that Dewey believed a child is best prepared for the demands of responsible membership within the democratic community (Field, 2002).

 

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Developing Character Education Schools

 

How can character development be introduced into school settings? What is necessary to foster a good learning environment so students, teachers, parents and the community work together to promote the growth of a caring community? These are questions that need to be answered. There are no perfect answers. Each school community needs to reflect on their own setting and circumstances and develop their own program of character education by taking parts of an existing program(s) to suit their own needs. However, Purkey (1999) states that to have a successful program, there must be intentionality - a safe and caring school does not just happen. He refers to the five P's of an inviting school. They are:

    • "People: Faculty and staff work as a school family. Activities include training in stress reduction and conflict management, long-term relationships between faculty and students, courteous staff, and respect for everyone. Special attention is given to personal grooming and professional dress.

    • Places: Careful attention is given to the physical environment, including adequate lighting, well-maintained buildings and grounds, clean rest rooms, attractive classrooms and cafeterias, and displays celebrating student accomplishments. Ways are found to enhance the physical environment of the school, no matter how old the building.

    • Policies: Attendance, grading, promotion, discipline and other policies are developed and maintained within a circle of respect for everyone involved. Families are kept informed through newsletters, bulletins, phone calls and meetings. Every school policy is democratically developed, easy to understand, and made available to everyone involved.

    • Programs: Among the many programs that help to create safe schools are community outreach, wellness, and enrichment opportunities for everyone in the school. Programs that involve parents are strongly encouraged. Guidance counselors play a central role in arranging beneficial programs.

    • Processes: Process is the way in which things are done in the school. A democratic ethos is valued along with an academic orientation. All activities and procedures are designed to honor and include everyone. Ideas, suggestions, and concerns are welcomed in the inviting school." (Purkey, 1999)

All of the five P's need to be attended to so school is an "exciting, satisfying, and enriching experience for everyone." (Purkey, 1999).

School Population

One of the first considerations to facilitate a safe and caring school is to have a smaller school population where class size is also very important. Creating a learning environment where teachers and staff know the majority of the students means that there are more opportunities for staff and students to build strong relationships and increase the nurturing environment of the school (Learning First Alliance, p. 15, 2001). Small schools have other benefits that range from improved classroom behavior, and greater student, parent and teacher participation in school life, to higher academic achievement - particularly from children in low-income homes (Learning First Alliance, p.15, 2001).

Relationships

A second consideration is that students learn better when they have a positive relationship with their teachers, when they can identify with them and when they see their teachers in a positive way (Sherman, 1999; Aspy and Roebuck, 1977). This underlies Aristotle's view that "friendship (philia) is the central arena in which character development takes place" (Sherman, 1999, p. 41). This holds the utmost importance in education. Students will learn positive moral and emotional behaviour from teachers with whom they have a positive affinity.


Aristotle also indicated that emotions play an important role in "both track[ing] and convey[ing] what we care about" (Sherman, p.40). Without emotions life would be flat and unrecognizable, but more importantly, emotions are motivators for us. Emotions can prompt us to act in a compassionate and caring manner (Sherman, 1999). Dewey went on to say, "I believe that if we can only secure right habits of action and thought, with reference to the good, the true, and the beautiful, the emotions will for the most part take care of themselves" (Dewey, 2002).


Each instance where emotion is a driver, both positive and negative, the motivation should be addressed "to expose the implicit judgments that emotions involve" (Sherman, p.46). By exploring the reasons behind the actions that were driven by emotion, students can become aware of how they react to certain stimuli and gain insight into how their actions affect others. Furthermore Sherman points out that, "Change that penetrates not merely conduct but attitude must work on those emotions and their constitutive evaluations" (Sherman, p.46). Herein lies the challenge for educators.

 

Building Community

One of the most important aspects in initiating a strong character education program is the development of a community. Teachers need to work in conjunction with parents to build a community. Here they can act as strong positive role models to counteract negative behaviour that the child may see in themselves, or in friends, who may have limited or no moral convictions (DeRoche & Williams, 2001)


To build an effective community where children are taught values and morals relies on the proviso that there be no disparity between what the teachers and parents are transmitting to the children (Noddings, 1997).
Illustrating this point Noddings says,


"Character education as a specific approach to moral education traces its roots to Aristotle. In contrast to views that emphasize reasoning, problem solving and critical thinking, character education concentrates on the development of virtues. Because the individual is from the start part of a tradition, character education is inextricably joined to community. A strong community defines and exhibits what is meant by the good life; it produces exemplars whose virtues should be emulated." (1997, p.1)

 

Community is central to character and intellectual development in children (Oakeshott in Noddings, 1997; Burrett & Rusnak, 1993). The stories and traditions that are passed on to the children illustrate, to the children, how a community values morals (Noddings, 1997; Norfolk & Norfolk, 1999; CHARACTERplus, 1988; The Character Education Partnership). Noddings quotes Robert Bellah who gives this definition of community.


"A community is a group of people who are socially interdependent, who participate together in discussion and decision making, and who share certain practices that both define the community and are nurtured by it. Such a community is not quickly formed. It almost always has a history and so is also a community of memory, defined in part by its past and its memory of its past" (1997, p.4).

 

Educators can help develop the sense of community where students feel ownership, pride, caring and involvement within the school environment (Noddings, 1997). However, the larger community including the family and the physical neighbourhood must also become part of this school community, to be truly effective in building the morals and values of their youngest members.

 

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Character Development Programs

There are three programs that seem comprehensive and that give choice to schools setting up a character education program. In this paper I will discuss three such programs. According to DeRoche and Williams the public would like to have schools involve the students in character development and also facilitate students in forming values that conform to those in society (2001).


One program that I will examine is that of DeRoche and Williams which is discussed in their book "Educating Hearts and Minds - A Comprehensive Character Education Framework." They give some rational suggestions of how to go about setting up a program in a school. A second program is one advocated by Lickona from the University of Cortland in New York. He has written numerous articles and books on the fourth and fifth R's - respect and responsibility (Lickona, 1991, 1997). Finally, I will consider "The Child Development Project," which was started in 1982, with three California schools.

 

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Connecting Hearts and Minds Program

DeRoche and Williams (2001) suggest that schools and all stakeholders look at what has worked and what has not worked before they proceed with developing their own program for their own situation. Each character education program, to work best, should be personal, take useful information from others and patent it to their own circumstances (DeRoche & Williams, 2001). Their framework (Figure 1), has nine factors they feel should be considered when planning a character education program.

 

Fig. 1 The Comprehensive Character Education Framework by DeRoche & Williams, 2001


Leadership is critical at the school level and this means that it is essential to have the principal to buy in to the program before it starts (DeRoche & Williams, 2001). However the principal need not take on all leadership roles, but it is critical that they believe and support the program and its leaders. The leader should have the ability to listen, be empathetic, be persuasive, and help build a sense of community. Furthermore in this role there must be the ability to implement "consensus-building strategies" (DeRoche & Williams, 2001, p.69) which allow all members of a committee to have a voice but then as a committee to agree on a way to implement the ideas or plans. As well the leader should be a role model for all others (Burrett & Rusnak, 1993). It is imperative that the leaders provide opportunities for the committees to bring together a vision and mission statement that all can respect and follow.


It is also necessary to set out clear expectations in all areas (DeRoche & Williams, 2001). Firstly the committees need to agree on the values to strive for and that are considered necessary for students, teachers and parents (Stein, Richin, Banyon, Banyon, & Stein, 2000) These values will serve as a foundation for classroom expectations where students and teachers develop trust and respect for each other as they work to embrace a consensus building community of learners. Not only will values be infused into the curriculum but students need to take responsibility for their own learning and work towards becoming independent learners (DeRoche & Williams, 2001; Calgary Board of Education, 1998).


The school climate must be must be developed to ensure that students are successful (DeRoche & Williams, 2001; Starratt,1994). Without an optimistic and upbeat working environment, positive working relationships among staff, parents and administration, a safe and clean physical environment and an atmosphere where every one is a valued member of the community, students will not do well in their academic achievements (DeRoche & Williams, 2001).


There are implementation criteria which are important because they guide those who are developing a character education program for their school community. The eleven criteria they refer to are "caring, collaboration, commitment, courage, change, connections, coherence, consensus, communication, culture and critical" (DeRoche & Williams 2001, p.74). Each one of these is important so that "the development, implementation, and assessment of comprehensive character education programs and practices can be enhanced" (DeRoche & Williams, 2001, p.74).


When creating a program for character development it is critical that goals, objectives and standards are an integral part of the program (DeRoche & Williams, 2001). The establishment of benchmarks from their starting point and the development that the community wishes to see in year one, two, five, and so on ensures that the progress and development of the program can be tracked. Step one is to identify areas where targets and goals are needed. Step two is to create defined and measurable targets in each of the areas, and then to set goals in these areas (DeRoche & Williams, 2001).


Character development must then be included so they can be integrated or infused into the curriculum already set out by a province, state or local board. Another area where targets and goals must be set is in the assessment of the program. Where are the students now, in their perception of their values, and where do teachers see them? How have the lines of communication been? Are students, parents and the community involved more or less with each other? These and other questions need to be asked in surveys that are developed. These surveys can be administered when the program is first implemented and then again in year one and year two.


A major factor that necessary for success is training or professional development of the staff. Measures should be taken to ensure the inclusion of a comprehensive program to train and guide the staff through the program. Continuity and access to program information (i.e. training when all teachers can attend) must be in place for teachers to find it effective and helpful. Without professional development and time to plan the integration of character education into the curriculum the program will fail. Teachers need to feel comfortable and to build their own material so they have a sense of ownership and pride (DeRoche & Williams, 2001).


Three other factors in the framework for building a successful character education program are partnerships, resources and assessment. With a partnership it is imperative that the home and parents be involved. If so much effort is being put into the program at school it is vital that parents be as much a part of it as possible. School committees should bring in other community groups to share their expertise, knowledge and commitment to youth. With everyone involved and 'on the same page' the program has a greater chance to be successful (DeRoche & Williams, 2001).


The use of resources, some of which will be from the community at large, and other resources will be the Internet, books, videos and other programs, need to be considered. Where will the money come from, who will set out the budget and how the money will be allocated are questions that need to be factored in when planning for resources.


Finally, the assessment of the program is vital. Without benchmarks and clear goals and objectives in the program, evaluation of the program's effectiveness will not be possible. Without assessment no one will know if the program has been successful, what components need to be changed or modified and where to take the program next.

 

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Character Development and the Fourth and Fifth R's

 

Lickona (1997) indicates there are three reasons for schools to work at developing character education in the school because we need to develop the humanness in students, develop their virtues, and build a moral society.


Lickona further discusses what a virtue is. He states that there are "three parts to a virtue - moral knowledge, moral feeling and moral behaviour," (Lickona, 1997, p.46). Students must first understand the virtue being taught or referred to and then develop a sense of empathy or feeling for the virtue and how others are impacted by the actions of ones self or others. Finally a student needs to think how the situation can be rectified and try to takes steps toward achieving that goal (Lickona, 1997). As stated earlier, practicing through role playing will assist students when confronted in a real life situation to 'knowing the good' (Kohlberg, 1981 p. 40).


This is part of his comprehensive approach to character education. Lickona (1997) has developed a model to show what he means (Fig. 2). It includes, at the centre, the three parts of virtue, which are wrapped up in respect and responsibility. From there the next circle gives strategies to be used in the classroom and on the outer rim school wide strategies are listed that build character in students, staff, parents and the community (Lickona, 1997, p.47).

Fig 2. Centre for the 4th and 5th Rs Lickona (Graphic from Centre for the 4th and 5th RS)


In discussing the middle circle Lickona suggests that the classroom teacher needs to:

    1. show that he/she cares about the students in a respectful way,
    2. set an example by being a role model for students,
    3. mentor students in proper behaviour through discussion, the telling of stories or literature and set out positive behaviour plans (Lickona, 1997).


Character can be developed in schools through stories (Norfolk, 1999; CHARACTERplus, 1988; CDP, 2001) "Stories, judiciously chosen and discussed, can inspire (as character educators claim), set the stage for critical thinking (as cognitivists recommend), and enlarge students' catalogue of cultural knowledge" (Noddings, 1997, p.10).


"Stories are not the only feature of moral education that is compatible with both character education and cognitive approaches. [Noddings further states that] we could talk about the role of conversation in all its forms - from philosophical argumentation to everyday conversation" (1997, p. 13). As well teachers must be role models for their students and allow students to expand their horizons and care for the global community (Noddings, 1997; Bowman, 2001a; Lickona, 1997). Such opportunities exist for students who wish to become involved with environmental concerns, the plight of the poor or with societies who are governed unfairly.
Lickona further stresses that the caring classroom is critical as students are then living the moral life and experiencing the benefits which are getting to know each other, learning to respect one another, and developing a feeling of belonging (1997). When this transpires students feel safe and they develop a sense of trust with each other. In addition to caring for each other within their class students also learn the reasons why they have rules, as students are encouraged to be involved in class discussions and help make decisions in their class. Students need to learn to take pride: in their work, in their interactions with others and in their best effort in all they do. Lickona refers to this as "the conscience of craft" (1997, p. 54). Two other areas that are important within the classroom are actually learning the virtues that the school wishes to advance and letting the students discuss these openly. This will provide them with a firm grasp on the meaning and consequences and also to work on conflict resolution strategies that allow students to get along more peacefully and to help those who have difficulty in social situations.


In classroom strategies Lickona refers to cooperative learning that allows students to practice all of the strategies discussed but with only a few students. It allows students the safety of a very small group and the support necessary from their fellow group members. It sounds easy but having students work in cooperative groups takes time and patience from the teacher and group members as well. Remember that students learn by doing and the more time they are given to practice this role the more successful they will be (Aristotle, Niconachean Ethics, Book II, in Smith). However, it is imperative that cooperative learning be part of character education (Lickona, 1997; Burrett &Rusnak, 1993). It should not be done for all activities, as students do need to learn how to work on their own and be responsible for themselves.


In Lickona's outer circle of his comprehensive approach to character education he emphasizes the importance of laying the foundations for a total school culture. Teachers, students, parents, the local community, and the global community must all be part of the school culture. The entire school must help create "a positive moral culture in the school [that] involves defining, communicating, modeling, teaching, and consistently upholding the school's professed moral values in all areas of school life" (Lickona, 1997, p.57). Over time schools and communities who put in the effort of developing character in students will reap the benefits both morally and academically (Lickona, 1997).


Lickona in his closing statement reiterated in these words,

"Character education efforts must be truly comprehensive in order to be commensurate with the seriousness of the moral problems that confront us. In the long run, this means that all groups that touch the values and character of the young must come together in common cause to elevate the character of our children and, ultimately, of society as a whole" (1997, p.61).

 

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The Child Development Project


Schaps, Battistich and Solomon indicate that the key to character education is two-fold if students are to have growth in their intellectual, social and ethical domains. Students need to have "(1) opportunities for membership in a caring community of learners and (2) important, challenging, engaging learning opportunities" (p.128). However, to have this happen, as seen in Fig 3., students need to have their psychological needs met, meaning they have a sense of control over their life, they feel good about themselves and they feel they belong.

Fig. 3 Child Development Framework


 

A strong component of the Child Development Project (CDP) is the reading and language arts program that includes a large selection of excellent children's literature. It is through the study of literature that students can engage in meaningful discussions about the characters, the decisions they made and how this can affect them in life (CDP, 2002; Schaps et al., 2000; Noddings, 1996).
Cooperative learning is another strong component of the program as it was in Lickona's. Here students engage in working together for a common purpose. In each group students are learning information that others will need to know and in this way there is no competition between groups but a sense of community can be developed (Cohen, 1986; United Nations Education, 1984).


Discipline and classroom management is not forgotten in this program but students also are given a say in the rules and discipline procedures (CDP, 2002; Siegal, 1988). With an understanding of why these rules need to be in place more students will take ownership of the rules and they will feel responsible for helping others follow the rules. It develops a caring classroom and eventually a caring school community (CDP, 2002; Wilson, 1981).


As mentioned earlier positive home/school interactions need to be in place so that all stakeholders are developing the sense of community that is vital for the success of the program (Lickona, 1997; Bowman, 201a; Noddings, 1997).


A final part of the CDP was developing in-school service programs such as a buddy program, leadership club, and other service clubs within the school. Some of these programs would be part of the formal school day but others could be operated in the morning, noon or after school, depending on the timetable and interests of the teachers, students, staff and parents.


When teachers were warm and supportive, promoted cooperation, elicited student thinking and discussion, emphasized prosocial values and social understanding, emphasized intrinsic motivation not extrinsic, provide for student autonomy and influence in class then students tended to have trust and respect for teachers, concern for others, better conflict resolution skills, altruistic behaviour and enjoyment in helping others.(Schaps et al, 1997, p. 138; Kohn, 1997, 2001).


They go on to say that,


"caring school communities, while benefiting all students, may provide pivotal additional support, encouragement, identification, and commitment to those groups of students who traditionally have been least likely to succeed in school and are most at risk for engaging in problem behaviours (Schaps et al, 1997, p.138).

 

 

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Conclusion

Character Education has been discussed for centuries. Throughout the ages it has been noted that there are some successes with programs to help develop character in students, but there have also been programs that have not been successful. Throughout history, individuals and educators alike have said it is important to challenge youth to 'take up the torch' to develop their sense of justice for every human being. How this is done is up to an individual school but if children are to learn to be responsible, caring, respectful citizens, the school can not do it alone. The community of parents must become involved and to make it even more encompassing the neighbourhood community should be included in activities within the school too.

 

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